Research methods — AS & A Level Psychology (9990) questions by topic

Describe what is meant by a questionnaire.

The study by Bandura et al. (aggression) provides no information about whether or not consent was obtained from the participants. Outline what is meant by 'consent'.

In the study by Milgram, obedience was tested. Participants with a range of different occupations and ages were used to improve generalisability. Suggest one reason why using…

In the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), the ages of all participants were known. The mean and standard deviation of the ages of the participants in Groups 1 and 3 are…

Explain one ethical weakness of the case study research method. Do not use consent in your answer.

Describe opportunity sampling and random sampling, using any example(s).

Dr Smith wants to compare how easily two species of animal learn to press a lever to receive food. Suggest one way that Dr Smith could produce a quantitative measure of how easily…

Josie is collecting data from other students in her class to test the hypothesis 'There is a relationship between tidiness of classwork and enjoyment of lessons'. Josie will use…

Dr Gao is planning a longitudinal study about changes in reading habits. She will study the same group of participants from childhood, through adolescence and into adulthood. Dr…

Dr Miller is researching factors that affect how well people sleep. He wants to know whether creative activities (such as art, music or dance) help people to sleep well. Describe…

Explain how the independent variable (IV) was operationalised in the study by Andrade (doodling). [2]

In the study by Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences), some of the data was displayed on graphs. This included a comparison of time spent playing with different types of toys by…

In the study by Milgram, two types of data were collected to demonstrate obedience. One example of each type was: - voltage reached when the participant refused to continue -…

In a study of learning, animals are taught to drop a small object into a hole. Suggest how 'learning' could be operationalised in this study. [1]

In some studies, scientific equipment is used to measure variables, such as brain activity or eye movements. Suggest two weaknesses of using scientific equipment to measure…

Describe order effects, using any example(s). [6]

Inma is observing one student at a time in the playground, to investigate how often each individual talks to other students. Inma is concerned about two uncontrolled variables: -…

Kong is interviewing people about friendliness. He tells his participants his study is about how they spend their free time. Kong uses two measures of friendliness: - timing the…

Dr Shaw is planning a questionnaire about early childhood memories. There are two techniques for presenting a questionnaire to participants. Identify the two techniques.

Dr Brent works in a busy hospital. There are noises from equipment and people on the wards. He thinks there might be a link between two variables: - how noisy wards are - the…

Outline the ethical guideline of 'confidentiality'.

Cognitive psychologists sometimes study people's recall of past events. Outline what is meant by 'subjectivity'.

A study tested the relationship between average number of hours of sleep per night and physical health. The participants slept in their own homes. The results showed a positive…

An investigation is testing the hypothesis that, 'intelligence affects obedience'. State whether this is a directional or a non-directional hypothesis. Justify your answer.

In the study by Bandura et al. (aggression), a sample of children was recruited from a university nursery. The sampling technique is not stated. Suggest why Bandura et al. may not…

Describe structured interviews and semi-structured interviews, using any example(s).

Dr Jones is conducting a case study of a man, Kevan, who has been practising mindfulness for 10 years. Suggest two questions that Dr Jones could use in a self-report…

Dr Mohan has proposed a study using monkeys in a laboratory. A colleague has two suggestions to make the study more ethical: • suggestion 1: using animals which have less complex…

Kioni is conducting a longitudinal study. Her aim is to study changes in preferred personal space throughout her participants' lives. Kioni is deciding how frequently throughout…

Isla is a teacher. She thinks that allowing students to play with an object in class will improve attention. Isla is unsure whether it will be better to play with a pen or play…

Identify the sampling technique used in the study by Milgram (obedience).

Explain what is meant by the ethical guideline of 'species' in relation to animals in psychological research.

Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) asked participants to record their dream narratives. The words in each narrative were counted. Identify the type of data provided by…

Glyn is conducting an experiment with an independent measures design. He is testing the effect of background noise on social learning (learning by imitation). Glyn shows each…

In the study by Pozzulo et al. (line-ups), children were interviewed. Explain why it was necessary to gain consent from both the children and the children's parents/guardians.

Describe participant observation and non-participant observation, using any example(s).

Ranya is collecting data about study habits after school. She is asking students in her school two questions: - Question 1: How long do you spend studying per week after school? -…

Simon is conducting a study about children learning to read. He is comparing how well they understand a story when reading from a book which has pages with images that are either:…

Heng is conducting a study to investigate the job satisfaction of male and female employees at a factory. She has identified two problems with uncontrolled variables. One is a…

Mary is conducting a case study on a boy diagnosed with an autistic spectrum disorder. He produces many detailed doodles and Mary wants to learn about him and his doodling.…

State the two main features of a case study.

Kanav wanted to recruit participants from his town for his study. He put an advertisement into the window of every shop in his town and used all the people who responded as his…

A study has the hypothesis 'Four-year-old children make more language mistakes than eight-year-old children.' State whether this hypothesis is a: • directional hypothesis •…

The study by Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences) used animals. Outline two named ethical guidelines in relation to the use of animals in this study.

In the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), a control task was used to be certain that the AS/HFA participants could use information from pictures of eyes to make simple…

Describe how variables in correlations can be measured, using any example(s).

Chyou is conducting a self-report about students' subject choices. Four of her questions are: A Describe how much you like maths. B How much do you enjoy studying science? 0 = do…

Daku is observing the obedience of boys and girls to teachers and older pupils when they are waiting for their lunch. Fig. 8.1 is a graph of Daku's results. Fig. 8.1 is a bar…

Carol is investigating how music in a sports centre affects the amount that people exercise. On each visit she listens to the music that is playing. She measures the music by…

Chloë is studying behaviour in the workplace. She wants to investigate how people behave during mealtimes at work. A range of food is available to the workers, which can be eaten…

Explain what is meant by a covert observation, using any example.

The results from the study by Andrade (doodling) included the following data about the shading of shapes by participants in the doodling group: - the mean number per participant…

Describe how one feature of the study by Milgram (obedience) helped to make the study valid.

One group of participants in the study by Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) was a sample of 16 right-handed adults: 6 males and 10 females. Explain two reasons why this…

Memory research is often conducted using eyewitnesses who have witnessed a real crime. Alternatively, researchers can use a simulated crime in a laboratory and ask participants…

Describe the following experimental designs, using any example(s): - matched pairs design - repeated measures design.

Yashal is planning an experiment about the effect music has on students doing their homework. She is choosing the conditions she will use. Outline what is meant by the term…

A parrot rescue centre has some new parrots which need to learn to enter a cage. Their trainer is planning a procedure using operant conditioning to teach the parrots to enter the…

Faiza is planning to investigate the effect of air pollution on emotion. She had planned to conduct a laboratory experiment, but rejected this for ethical reasons. Suggest one…

Bhaavik is interested in the relationship between shyness and happiness. He says to his friend Jim that the shy people he knows are really happy, but Jim says he knows lots of…

Explain what is meant by a 'matched pairs design', including any example.

A longitudinal experiment is testing the hypothesis 'Elephants will learn better as they grow older'. Identify the type of hypothesis in this experiment. Justify your answer.

For the study by Baron-Cohen et al., a revised version of the 'eyes test' was developed. However, some problems with ecological validity remained. Define what is meant by the term…

The study by Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences) was an experiment. Describe what is meant by an 'experiment'.

Describe inter-rater reliability and inter-observer reliability, using any example(s).

Dr Eynon is a university lecturer studying personality. She tested the personality of some of her students and divided them into two groups, 'personality R' and 'personality S'.…

Mr Grainger trains each of his farm animals to enter a stable. He lets the animal approach the stable, then rewards it with food. Each time the animal gets closer to the stable…

Chen is conducting a study that is similar to the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans). She has asked a young person and an old person to act as 'victims'. Each victim…

Tanya is investigating prosocial behaviour (this is positive, friendly behaviour between individuals). She is studying prosocial behaviours in children at her local school and…

In the study by Milgram the variable of 'obedience' was measured. Describe the measure of obedience used.

Explain one similarity and one difference between a positive correlation and a negative correlation.

In the study by Bandura et al. (aggression), details are not given about consent from the parents or the children. Explain what is meant by 'informed consent'.

Daniel used a sample of 20 participants in a laboratory experiment using a repeated measures design. He had two conditions: - listening to loud music - listening to quiet music.…

Describe the techniques of 'paper and pencil' questionnaires and 'online' questionnaires, using any example(s).

Mohsin is investigating whether colour affects supermarket shoppers' food choices. He is comparing healthy and unhealthy snacks that are displayed in blue or green packaging. He…

Jenny has noticed that some of her school friends doodle and some do not doodle. This may be because some of her friends are more creative than others. She plans to explore this…

Parul has conducted a study about happiness. She has counted the number of her colleagues who are smiling when they arrive at work on Monday and on Friday. Fig. 8.1 shows a graph…

Lixin is investigating the social behaviour of adults. He plans to observe adults in a town centre during their lunch break. Describe how Lixin could conduct an observational…

Outline what is meant by the term 'random sampling'.

In a laboratory experiment, the happiness of participants is being compared in two situations: • with other people • without other people. Identify the dependent variable (DV) in…

In the study by Fagen et al. (elephant learning), most of the data collected was quantitative. Some qualitative data was collected, including an initial observation that one…

Studies in social psychology can use stooges or imagined people to cause participants to respond. In the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans), stooges were used as…

Pozzulo et al. (line-ups) calculated the mean number of correct identifications of human faces per child. Explain how the researchers calculated this mean in this study.

Describe laboratory experiments and field experiments, using any example(s).

Daiyu is conducting a case study about a seven-year-old child with autism. She is interested in the child's interactions with their family and other children. Suggest two…

Hazel is conducting a study in a park to compare the behaviours of adults who have children with them and adults who do not have children with them. She plans to record three…

Hudson is planning to correlate how much a person wants to sleep (sleepiness) and the amount of time since their last meal. He will ask people to estimate the amount of time since…

Zeta notices that people respond in different ways to advertisements for products. People may find the advertisements funny, annoying and/or informative. She is interested in…

Explain what is meant by the term 'ecological validity'. You may use an example in your answer.

In the study by Laney et al. (false memory), different types of items were used in the various questionnaires. Two of the items included: - rating items on a scale of 1–8 (from…

In the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions), a repeated measures design was used. Explain what is meant by a 'repeated measures design'. Include an example from Canli…

Explain two ways in which the procedure was standardised in the study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping).

Reliability refers to the consistency of tests, tasks or measures in research. Explain why reliability is important in experiments.

Describe the sampling techniques of 'opportunity sampling' and 'volunteer sampling', using any examples.

Steve is planning an experiment, using the technique of observation, to compare the level of frustration shown by shoppers in different types of shops. He has set up cameras to…

Leila is conducting a correlational study. She predicts that there will be a correlation between: - 'success at learning a language' - 'enjoyment of word puzzles', e.g.…

Inma is conducting an experiment about learning. She predicts that animals will learn to find food in a maze faster in the light than in the dark. If an animal does not find the…

Dr Clare is planning an observational study of student behaviour in a library at a university. She will be the only observer. She is interested in student behaviours such as: -…

From the study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping): Suggest why it was necessary for the chimpanzees to examine and manipulate the tools before the experiment.

Chloë is conducting a study to investigate classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Her aim is to test which type of conditioning produces the fastest learning. Write a…

The study by Schachter and Singer investigated two factors in emotion. The participants in this study were deceived. Outline one way that the participants were deceived in this…

The data from Experiment 1 in the study by Laney et al. (false memory) is given in Table 4.1. Table 4.1 — Mean rating for the critical item 'loved asparagus the first time you…

Explain the importance of inter-observer reliability in the study by Bandura et al. (aggression).

Describe the use of controls in laboratory experiments and field experiments, using any examples.

Deryn is planning an experimental study to compare how, and how often, men and women look at themselves in a shop window. She plans to collect quantitative data using observations…

Phyllis is planning a correlational study to investigate the relationship between vocabulary size and level of education. Suggest two ways that Phyllis could measure 'vocabulary…

James is planning a study and has chosen to use opportunity sampling to find participants. A friend says he should use random sampling instead. Another friend says that sample…

Perrin is going to interview participants about their dreams. He wants to collect information about the duration and content of dreams in children and adults. Describe how Perrin…

Describe what is meant by the term 'random sampling'.

The study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping) followed ethical guidelines relating to the use of animals. Describe how two ethical guidelines relating to the use of animals in…

In the study by Laney et al. (false memory), standard deviations were calculated. State what is meant by a 'measure of spread'.

In the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning), Alex the parrot was tested using the categories of: - shape - material - colour. Suggest why Pepperberg chose to test the parrot…

The study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) investigated two kinds of sleep: REM sleep and non-REM sleep. State three differences between REM sleep and non-REM sleep.

Describe the ethical guidelines of 'informed consent' and 'protection from harm', using any examples.

Nigel has conducted a laboratory experiment to compare children's choice of sweets (candy) in different packets. The children were shown sweets in: - brightly coloured packets…

Mila is planning a case study to investigate how a 21-year-old person feels about being the only young person in a community of 20 older people on a small island. Suggest two…

Alan and Jocelyn are writing a questionnaire to ask about the level of euphoria created by listening to music at a concert, compared with listening to music at home. Suggest one…

Dr Caesar is interested in animal phobias in his patients. He wants to investigate whether there is a correlation between the size of the animal causing the phobia and the…

Explain what is meant by 'covert' observation.

A hypothesis is 'There will be a difference in helpfulness between obedient and disobedient people'. State whether this is a directional (one-tailed) hypothesis or a…

The study by Pepperberg (parrot learning) tested a parrot's understanding of the concepts of 'same' and 'different'. Table 3.1 shows the total results for correct responses and…

In the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions), all the participants were female. State the two reasons that Canli et al. gave for using only female participants in this…

In Experiment 1 of the study by Laney et al. (false memory), participants were randomly allocated to one of two conditions (levels of the independent variable). State what is…

Describe the ethical guidelines of 'right to withdraw' and 'confidentiality', using any examples.

Two female researchers, Meilin and Nina, are preparing a structured interview about dreams. Each researcher will interview 10 participants. Suggest three ways that Meilin and Nina…

Alf conducted an experiment comparing the range of television programmes that old and young people watch. He collected his data by questionnaire and found that young people watch…

Calle is planning a correlational study. He is measuring two variables: happiness and confidence. Calle's friend Violet is helping him to plan his questions. Calle has written two…

Sophie is planning a natural experiment to investigate the effects of closing a road on anger in drivers. One road into a town will be closed for three weeks and the traffic will…

From the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning): State the aim of this study.

Explain the importance of the ethical guidelines of anaesthesia, analgesia and euthanasia in relation to the use of animals in research.

Participants in the study by Laney et al. (false memory) completed a 'Restaurant Questionnaire', which was formatted to look like a menu. Describe the Restaurant Questionnaire.

The study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping) used a repeated measures experimental design. Outline what is meant by a 'repeated measures design'. Include an example from the…

In a study that measured two variables, a relationship between the variables was found. As one variable increased, the other decreased. Name this relationship.

Describe natural experiments and naturalistic observations, using any examples.

James is conducting an interview to investigate topics that could influence anger and euphoria. He has already written his questions about anger. James needs to write questions…

Olive and Durnaz are planning a questionnaire to use in their study, which aims to investigate forgetting in old people. Olive thinks that they should include some irrelevant…

Gagan has collected data about personality characteristics. Two of the questions he asked were: - Personality question: Which word best describes your personality? Angry /…

Sara wants to test whether people with a higher intelligence quotient (IQ) are better at concentrating. She will conduct a laboratory experiment and already has a test for…

A matched pairs design is an experimental design that can be used in studies comparing two conditions, or levels, of an independent variable. Explain what is meant by a 'matched…

A range can be calculated when numerical scores are collected from participants in a study. Define the term 'range'.

The reliability of a study is affected by the measures (scales or tasks) chosen by the researcher and the way that these are used when conducting the study. One way to check…

Describe the ethical guidelines of 'housing' and 'rewards' in relation to animals, using any examples.

Dr Casson conducted a field experiment to compare the emotions that people show when they respond to shop assistants who are either wearing a uniform or casual clothes. She asked…

Keung and Jovita are planning a correlational study to investigate the relationship between a person's physical activity level and their attention level. They each make a…

Dr Wilson is conducting an experiment on memory for complex, coloured shapes. He is using students for his sample. Dr Wilson intends to generalise his results widely, to…

Dr Birkin is planning an observational study of children's imaginary play behaviour (for example, a child might use a leaf as a plate, or a big cardboard box as a boat or a…